Almost any moving mechanical device can be called a machine. Although this definition includes a variety of devices, the term machine generally does not pertain to devices whose primary purpose is to transmit information. These include radios, televisions, and computers. A machine may be as simple as a screw, or it may be as large and complex as an automobile. The refrigerator in a home is a machine; so are the sewing machine, the automatic garage opener, and the sump pump. The many other machines include engines, pumps, compressors, turbines, cranes, hoists, mechanical watches and clocks, and printing presses.

Some machines, called machine tools, make parts by machining them, usually by shaping material into special forms. Many are automated, and in some cases, their operation sequences are monitored by a computer. Machine tools include lathes, planers, shapers, milling machines, drill presses, and boring machines.

Robots are among the most sophisticated machines. In a mass production assembly line, robots perform tasks requiring both accuracy and care. They are able to pick up a part, position it, perform a desired operation, and then send the part along the line for further processing.

SIMPLE MACHINES AND MACHINE PRINCIPLES

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Machines date back to antiquity. Some of the simplest machines are the lever, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane, and the screw. The screw is actually an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or cone. Modifications of simple machines are wedges, pulleys, hoists, cranks, and gears. All of these devices are used to redirect forces or motion to perform specific tasks (see mechanics).

The operation of a machine may involve the transformation of chemical, thermal, electrical, or nuclear energy into mechanical energy, or vice versa; or its function may simply be to modify and transmit forces and motions. All machines involve an input and output of energy. Because of friction, the work output is always less than the work input. Thus a machine’s efficiency, the ratio of output to input, is never 100 percent. The way the parts of a machine are interconnected and guided to produce a required output motion from a given input motion is called the mechanism of a machine.

MACHINE DESIGN

The design of machines and machine elements is the domain of the mechanical engineer, often working jointly with electrical engineers and materials scientists. Thus the specialization of machines over the years has gradually led to specializations in the field of engineering. There are also, for example, automotive engineers, manufacturing engineers, and textile engineers.

A well-designed machine may operate satisfactorily under various conditions of vibration, noise, temperature, corrosion, and loading. All of its components must fit together properly and the machine itself must be built to agree with the engineer’s design specifications. The design engineer determines the types of materials to be used to make the machine. Machine failure and safety analyses are carried out during the design process to prevent catastrophic failure. Ergonomics, or the study of the interaction between human beings and the machine, must be taken into consideration as well. A well-designed machine will be simple and safe to operate and will minimize operator fatigue.

Since both forces and motions are involved in a machine, the engineer must be familiar with the science of motion (kinematics) and the science of forces under motion (dynamics). Many machine parts consist of beams, cranks, shafts, plates, and cylinders. The effect of specific loads or types of stress on these parts influences their design. The process of monitoring materials under various types of stresses to determine their suitability for different situations is called materials testing.

MACHINE ELEMENTS

Simple machines and other devices used in combinations are called machine elements. They form the components used to construct modern machinery. An understanding of machines themselves first requires a knowledge of these components.

Machine components are often joined by welding and brazing or with screws, nuts and bolts, rivets, or glue. Elastic components such as springs are useful because they can deflect loads while absorbing energy. Rotating or sliding components are usually housed in bearings, which may require oil or gas lubrication. Ball or roller bearings are often used to minimize friction.

A component found in many machines is the shaft, most often a cylindrical bar that supports rotating parts or transmits power or motion by rotation. Gears and gear combinations in machines change the direction or speed of a shaft’s rotation. The gears in the differential of an automobile make it possible for the vehicle to turn a corner by allowing different axles and wheels to rotate at different speeds. Another device called the shaft coupling allows two rotating shafts to be connected or disconnected. The clutch does the same thing while the machine is under a load and running. Shafts may also be connected by chain drives. These consist of two hardened-steel sprockets, one on each shaft. A nylon or metal roller chain wraps around the closely aligned sprockets.

Brake components, used to slow down or speed up a machine, may be highly complex. Another complex machine is the torque converter in the transmission system of an automobile. Torque is a twisting force that produces rotation. In automatic transmissions, the torque converter delivers high torques to the drive shaft when the engine speed is low. It is also used as a substitute for a gear box and clutch.

An understanding of how linkages produce a desired motion is also necessary in machine design. Pistons and cylinders are an example of a common linkage system. Engines have a four-bar linkage, so called because it includes a piston, cylinder, piston rod, and crankshaft. The piston is a cylindrical element that sits at the end of the piston rod, which is connected to the crankshaft. The piston moves back and forth inside the hollow cylinder, causing work to be accomplished.

The cam is another linkage element. It either rotates or slides back and forth to create a specific motion in a contacting element known as a follower. Cam-follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one part of a machine is to be converted to a more complicated motion in another part of a machine.

Modern machines can be extremely complex. Their number of parts can range from a few to many thousands. The typical automobile, for example, has more than 15,000 separate parts, most of which are made by machines. The making of an automobile engine involves many specialized machine tools and machine-assisted assembly operations, such as the conveyor belt, a moving device on which the assembly takes place.

Complex machines deal with the conversion of energy to perform work. All power-driven motor vehicles, including automobiles, ships, locomotives, and airplanes, are machines. Motors and engines produce mechanical energy from chemical energy, such as in an automobile engine where fuel is burned, or in an electric motor, where electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy. In a generator, essentially the inverse of an electric motor, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy.

Hydraulic machines—fans, pumps, and compressors—turn mechanical shaft energy into flow energy in pressurized fluid (liquid or gas) or increase its velocity and, thereby, its kinetic energy. In some hydraulic systems, this energy is transmitted to a motor. The motor converts the energy into a mechanical output capable of doing work. Hydraulic power systems are capable of producing enormous amounts of power and also respond rapidly and accurately to controls. Hence, they are often used in aircraft, automobiles, heavy industrial machinery, and many machine tools. Pneumatic machines use compressed air to transmit energy. Examples of pneumatic devices are rock drills, jackhammers, riveters, and paint sprayers.

Turbines use the energy stored in a fluid to produce either mechanical power or, when also connected to a generator, electrical power. The initial energy in the fluid is due to its high pressure or, as in the case of liquids, its elevation. Some machines use mechanical energy to produce things. Such machines include machine tools, textile machines, printing presses, and many appliances.

Among the assortment of other machines are some meters. They are generally used to measure the flow of liquids, gases, or electricity. Weighing machines are devices used to determine weight. Control systems often include machines that control processes, such as the refining of gasoline in an oil refinery or the actuation of the control surfaces of an airplane. They may operate by electricity, by mechanical means, by fluid pressure (liquid or gas), or by a combination of means. There are two basic types of control systems: feedforward and feedback. An example of a feedforward control system is the machine tool of the 19th century that followed the shape of a model to cut materials into the same form. Machines used to copy keys operate on the same principle. Feedback systems use information from a process to correct the machine’s operation.

The parts in smoothly operating machines are made of specific materials and sizes. They must also withstand the wear and tear of service. The production of complex machines involves extreme accuracy in machining, part measurements, materials testing, quality control, and inspection. The permissible variance from specifications, called tolerance, may be measured in minute fractions of an inch.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The earliest complex machines date back more than 1,000 years. They include water-driven grain mills, forges, and sawmills. The age of the machine, however, began with the Industrial Revolution. During this period, steam engines replaced human and animal power with machine power. They drove machines in factories and, in locomotives and ships, improved transportation.

In the 19th century, machines such as the sewing machine replaced tedious hand labor and made it possible to turn out better work faster. The factory system also emerged during this period with the invention of an assortment of complex machines used in textile and other industries. Agricultural production increased with improved farm machinery, beginning with the invention of mechanical reapers.

The invention of the internal-combustion engine in the late 1800s opened the way for modern transportation, and the development of electric motors and generators brought a new source of power to homes and industries. In most factories, however, the power came from one large electric motor and was distributed to individual machines by a series of belts and pulley systems. Engines and electric motors remained large and cumbersome until the 1920s, when the small, fractional horsepower motor was developed. Such motors enabled individual electric machines in homes and in factories to have their own motors. Computers have eased the operation and control of machines and have also advanced factory automation, often by using robots.

The development of machinery, along with advances in mass production and automation, has helped achieve the higher standard of living enjoyed by industrialized societies. Machines have significantly reduced the need for a large labor force in many industries. Because new machines often require a change in workers’ skill level, a situation that sometimes leads to technological unemployment, better machines do not necessarily mean more jobs (see automation, “Automation and Society”).

-Abhilasha Deshpande

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